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The quality of surface water map

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Quality of surface waters

The quality of surface water depends on the combination of natural properties, conditions of self-purification of water bodies, and the input of contaminants from ambient environments. Hydrochemical and hydrobiological parameters are the main characteristics for water quality assessment. They are measured at the network of observations sites in accordance to a standard procedure, as well as by sanitary-epidemiological organizations and appropriate agencies.

Water quality is one of the main parameters of human activity, and it is strictly regulated in Russia and other countries. Exploitation of water bodies for different economic purposes is stipulated by several standards defining the list of chemical and biological elements in the water and their permissible concentrations. The water designated for household and recreational purposes has the strictest requirements to the water quality. The standards for water bodies designated for fisheries are less strict and used in comparative assessments of the quality of natural waters.

Qualitative characteristics of surface water summarised from the territorial reports are presented in the form of a map “Quality of surface water”, whose scale and information fullness are determined by the size of the lake’s catchment area. The original information for this map was taken from the governmental reports “On the state of Lake Baikal and measures for its protection” of the Republic of Buryatia and Irkutsk oblast, “Annual report on the quality of surface waters of the Russian Federation”, and the data provided by Mongolian scientists [National …, 2012, 2013; National …, 2013; Annual …, 2012]. To assess the state of water bodies, a specific index of water pollution (SIWP) was calculated from the most common contaminants of surface waters (see Methodology Instructions RD 52.24 643-2002). Water quality was assessed using SIWP and, as a result, five classes (categories) of water quality were identified in the examined water objects.

The water quality in the basin of the Selenga (the largest tributary of Lake Baikal) on the territory of Mongolia was classified according to the procedure similar to the Russian one. The main list and standards of chemical elements (dissolved oxygen, suspended particles, acidity, etc.) are almost identical for both countries [The harmonised monitoring program…, 2012]. The final classification of water bodies of the Selenga basin on the Mongolian territory was based on the calculated values of the water pollution index [Davaa, http://fofj.org] and brought into conformity with Russian classification.

On the map, the water quality classes of water bodies are depicted by colored lines and supplemented by marks showing the places where samples of chemical elements that were the main pollutants for the given segment of the water body were taken. In the lake’s catchment area, the integral characteristic of the quality of surface water varies over a wide range from “conditionally clean” to “dirty” preeminently due to the different levels of economic development of the region.

The major part of the lake catchment area belongs to the Selenga basin; the upper and central parts of the river are in Mongolia. The Selenga and a number of its large tributaries mainly cross underdeveloped territories and are not subject to significant pollution. The main large rivers of this area (the Delger-Muren, Ider, Orkhon, and Selenga) are characterized by high environmental indicators and practically pure (Class 1). The water in some areas of the hydrographic network of these streams that are adjacent to developed regions and subject to anthropogenic effect belong to Class 2 (“slightly polluted”). The Tuul river experiencing a severe anthropogenic impact (around Ulaanbaatar) significantly differs from other streams on the Mongolian territory: its surface water quality is classified as Class 4 (“dirty”). The main pollutants of this river are ammonium and nitrite nitrogen, phosphate, and sulphate. However, due to its self-purification processes occurring in the mouth area at the confluence with the Orkhon river the Tuul river water recovers to Class 1. The water in the Khiagt river on the northern border of Mongolia is also of low quality. This river brings its Class 4 waters to the territory of Buryatia (the Kyakhtinka river). Relatively low characteristics of the water quality (Classes 2 and 3) are recorded in some developed areas – in the Khangol (the town of Erdenet) and Orkhon (the town of Sukhbaatar) rivers.

Up to the confluence with the Orkhon, the water quality of the Selenga in Mongolia is regarded as Classes 1 and 2. Further, below Sukhbaatar and the Orkhon’s mouth, the Selenga crosses the border to Russia. In Buryatia, its water quality is classified as Class 3 (“polluted”). The main pollutants of the river at the cross-section of Naushki are compounds of aluminium, iron and copper, the values of which exceed maximum permissible concentrations. Furtheron, the Dzhida river (together with the Modonkul river – Class 4) and the Kyakhtinka river (Class 4) join the Selenga. The first one is affected by the discharges of mine and drainage waters from the non-functional company JSC “Dzhida Combine”, while the second one contains elevated maximum permissible concentrations of 11 elements due to the transboundary transfer (the Khiagt river).

Large tributaries of the Selenga joining this river downstream bring polluted waters of Class 3. The most unfavourable situation is observed at some sites of the rivers Kuitunka, Chikoy, Khilok, and Uda, whose water quality is regarded as “polluted”. The main pollutants are different forms of nitrogen, organic substances, and phenol. The water in the lower Selenga is characterised as Class 3.

The quality of surface water in other largest tributaries of Lake Baikal is also low. Such large rivers as the Upper Angara, Barguzin and Turka have polluted waters of Class 3, whilst the water in smaller rivers such as the Tiya, Kholodnaya, Kika, Snezhnaya, Utulik, Buguldeika, and other are of Class 2. Phenols in combination with oil products, zinc, copper, and organic substances are typical contaminants of these rivers.

There is a scarce information on water quality in the lakes located on the examined territory as no monitoring has been conducted there. The exception is Lake Gusinoe, whose water quality is of Class 3 (“polluted”). The main pollutants of this lake are phenols, oil products, copper, and other substances. Moreover, the lake is subject to thermal pollution from the Gusinoozerskaya Thermal Power Plant. Another water body, Lake Kotokel, located within the Baikal basin has a very low water quality. The use of its water is prohibited for any purposes, except for technical use, which is confirmed by Decree No. 4 “On the Initiation of Restrictive Measures at Lake Kotokel” of the Chief Sanitary Inspector of the Republic of Buryatia, dated June 6, 2009, [On the state of …, 2013].

It should be noted that against the backdrop of the increased water discharge into water bodies of this territory in 2012, there is a trend of significant improvement of surface water quality of the Baikal basin. The water quality indicators in the majority of water bodies have been improved by 1-2 classes as compared to 2011 and previous years (On the state of …, 2012, 2013; Annual report …, 2012).

 

References

Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation. (2012). On the state of Lake Baikal and measures for its protection in 2011: State report. Moscow. Retrieved from http://www.mnr.gov.ru

Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation. (2013). On the state of Lake Baikal and measures for its protection in 2012: State report. Moscow. Retrieved from http://www.mnr.gov.ru

The Sochava Institute of Geography SB RAS. (2013). On the state and conservation of the environment in Irkutsk oblast in 2012: State report. Irkutsk: The Sochava Institute of Geography SB RAS. p 337.

Hydrochemical Institute. (2012). Annual report on the quality of surface waters of the Russian Federation in 2012. Retrieved from http://www.ghi.aaanet.ru

Methodology Instructions. Method for a comprehensive assessment of pollution of surface waters using hydrochemical parameters. RD 52.24.643-2002. Retrieved from www.OpenGost.ru

The Baikal Basin Information Center. (2012). The harmonised monitoring program of water quality in the Selenga river basin. Retrieved from http://baikal.iwlearn.org/

Davaa, G., Oyunbaatar, D., & Sugita. M. Surface water of Mongolia. Retrieved from http://fofj.org/

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Timber stock of the main groups of forest forming tree species map

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Forest resources and their use

The Baikal basin is a truly enormous treasury of "green gold." As of January 1, 2011 the forest area is 32103.6 thousand hectares in the Russian part of the basin and 10354.3 thousand hectares in Mongolia. Total timber reserves in the Russian part of the basin are 2,795,800,000 m3, with a stock of the conifers 2.443.000.000 m3 (87.4 %). In Mongolia the total timber reserves is 1.373.100.000 m3.

The basic map shows the forests of nature conservation and other preservation patterns, as well as merchantable and other forests, suitable for commercial use, and reserved forests. It should be said that the division of forest lands into protected, merchantable and reserved is characteristic only of the Russian Federation. However, in the territory of Mongolia forests of special importance and in need of protection are distinguished, such as forest areas up to 100 hectares, forests on the slopes of the mountain areas of more than 30 degrees, etc.

Protected forests in Russia include forests subject to reclamation in order to maintain environmental, water protection, safety, sanitation, health and other useful features while using these forests providing compatibility with their intended purpose. Within the Baikal basin there is a high proportion of protected forests, due their ecosystemic, environment protection and water protection functions, as well as the important ecological role of montane forests. Merchantable forests are those which should be developed for the purposes of sustainable, maximum-efficiency rate production of high quality wood and other forest resources, as well as their conversion products ensuring the preservation of beneficial functions of forests. As far as the reserved forests are concerned, those are the forests not planned for logging for next twenty years. These forests are mostly located in the northern part of the region, in the permafrost zone, off-road area and are unattractive for development.

The insert map "Timber reserves by groups of the major forest forming species" shows the average reserves of softwood and hardwood forests (m3) per hectare of land covered by them. The average stand of timber per unit of the covered area is one of the indicators characterizing the productivity of forests, depending on growing conditions of stands, their species, and stands sparsity. The average stand of conifers and deciduous trees per hectare in the Russian part of the Baikal basin is 132.5 m3 (the global average is 100 m3/ha ), and it is fluctuating from 79-82 m3/ha (mostly in the steppe regions of Zabaikalsky krai, the Republic of Buryatia (Zaigraevsky, Chita districts) to 160 -170 m3/ha and up in the mid- and north areas (Uletovsky district of Transbaikalia, Kabansky and Severobaikalsky districts of the Republic of Buryatia, Irkutsky and Slyudyansky districts of Irkutsk oblast). Within the Mongolian part of the basin the average reserve of coniferous and deciduous tree stands is 126.6 m3 per one hectare with fluctuations in the aimaks from 81 to 205 m3 per ha. The highest average stand of timber per unit of forest area is characteristic of the northern mountainous areas of Mongolia.

Also this map shows the distribution of the total stand of timber by major groups of forest forming species (in million m3) with the method of cartodiagram. This index demonstrates forest-resource security area, which varies significantly in the districts of the Russian part of the basin and Mongolian aimaks (from 1.5 to 481 million m3). For correct depiction of the amount of total stand of timber within municipalities a conventional stepped scale for the circular cartodiagram was worked out, which enables to judge about the stands of timber for each group using the percentage between the major groups of forest forming species (coniferous, deciduous and shrubs).

Forest use is determined by the activities that have priority development within the forest vegetation areas. Timber harvesting is most developed among all kinds of forest utilization in the Russian part of the Baikal basin regulated by allowable cutting rates. Forests are actively used for recreation, hunting activities, etc.

In the analysis of forest utilization the following trends for all forests of the Baikal basin are revealed in recent years. They are reduction of coniferous stands, mostly maturing and mature stands; replacement of coniferous species by deciduous ones; widespread illegal logging, reduction of forested area due to fires, forest damage by pests, deforestation, and insufficient reforestation.

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Tourism map

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Tourism

The Baikal basin is a unique area that draws attention of tourists from all over the world. Its location in the heart of the Eurasian landmass has defined its high ethno-cultural and natural diversity. The history of development of the lands around Baikal is connected with the rise of two giant empires – Mongolian and Russian, as well as with the historical development of trade and transport routes.

The natural and resource nucleus of the recreational system of the Baikal basin is the oldest and deepest lake in the world itself. Infrastructural centers for tourism development are major cities of Ulaanbaatar, Irkutsk, and Ulan-Ude. They play the role of major international transport hubs and have administrative, educational, and cultural tourism resources, as well as a significant hospitality potential. In 2012, Ulaanbaatar had the largest hotel fund (over 170 hotels). There were about 80 hotels in Irkutsk and up to 20 in Ulan-Ude. In general, the transboundary area of the Baikal basin has over a thousand places for tourist accommodation of general and special purpose (Fig. 1).

  • hotels and guest houses
  • hostel for visitors
  • hostels, yurt camping and rest houses
  • resorts, motels and sanatorium
  • balneologic resorts without special health care

Figure 1. Recreational accommodation facilities in the transboundary Baikal basin [Business of the Angara region…, 2012; Activities of tourism firms..., 2011; Culture, tourism, and recreation…, 2012; Tourism in Sunny Buryatia, 2011; Soyol ..., 2013]

The number of accommodation facilities, as well as the level of offered services in conjunction with the configuration and nature of the tourist traffic help identify the most important areas for the tourism industry, assess the degree of tourism development, and get a general picture of a territorial structure of recreational activities. A matrix integrating the character of tourist traffic and a predominant type of accommodation was used as the basis for the expert assessment of tourism development of administrative units of Russia and Mongolia.

The main distinctive characteristics of the recreational system of the Baikal basin is its transboundary position. Therefore, the neighboring aimags of Mongolia and administrative districts of Irkutsk oblast and the Republic of Buryatia that are located along the state border and have cross-border corridors (ports of entry) are of a special significance.

The process of development of cross-border tourism in the neighboring territories of Russia and Mongolia is taking place under conditions, where both countries with a unique culture and nature are an integral part of the international recreational space, have a special interest for tourists from other countries, and make mutual contribution to the formation of the inbound tourist traffic. The Russian-Mongolian border, which crosses the basin, has three checkpoints that not only facilitate the exchange of foreign and domestic tour groups, but also serve as a prerequisite for the development of cross-border trade. Within 10 years, the total volume of passenger traffic through the existing checkpoints has more than doubled – from 229 thousand people in 2002 to 502.5 thousand people in 2012 (Fig. 2).

 

  • Naushki-Sükhbaatar
  • Kyakhta-Altabulag
  • Mondy-Khankh

Figure 2. Passenger traffic through the Russian-Mongolian border [Mongolian..., 2013; Mongolian ..., 2006]

Development of cross-border tourism requires joint decisions to promote a common tourism product on the state level. Such projects as “Baikal-Khovsgol”, which connects two great lakes of Asia, and “The Tea Road” have already become popular. The establishment of transboundary special protected areas have great prospects for the bilateral cooperation in the field of eco-tourism. They represent a particular organizational resource, which is important not only for the resolution of shared environmental problems, but also for the coordination of efforts aimed at implementing cross-border tourism projects.

Active cooperation between Russia and Mongolia in promoting tourism within the unique natural object – the Baikal basin not only opens the possibilities for increasing inbound foreign tourism in both countries, but also contributes to the expansion of similar relationships with other neighboring countries, such as China, Kazakhstan, and Japan.

 

References

Statistical Compendium. (2012). Business of the Angara region: Tourism and hospitality. Irkutsk: Irkutskstat. p 35-62.

Statistical Compendium. (2011). Activities of tourism firms and collective accommodation facilities in the Republic of Buryatia in 2011. Ulan-Ude: Buryatstat. p 7-12.

Statistical Compendium. (2012). Culture, tourism, and recreation in the Angara region. Irkutsk: Irkutskstat. p 45-52.

Statistical Compendium. (2011). Tourism in Sunny Buryatia. Ulan-Ude: Buryatstat. p 59.

National Statistical Office of Mongolia. (2013). Soyol, sport, ayalal, zhuulchlalyn salbaryn lavlakh. Ulaanbaatar. p 285.

National Statistical Office of Mongolia. (2012). Mongolian statistical yearbook 2012. Ulaanbaatar. p 297-299.

National Statistical Office of Mongolia. (2007). Mongolian statistical yearbook 2006. Ulaanbaatar. p 265-269.

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